Vocabulary which can help you get band 9 in the IELTS writing exam

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1. Education
2. Environment
3. Society
4. Health
5. Technology
6. Work and Career
7. Travel and Tourism
8. Arts and Media
9. Crime and Law
10. Globalization

I. Education

1. Types of Education:

• Pedagogy: The method and practice of teaching, especially as an academic subject or theoretical concept.
• Andragogy: The method and practice of teaching adult learners.
• Vocational Education: Training and education that prepares people for specific trades or careers.
• Tertiary Education: Higher education, typically provided by universities and colleges.
• Distance Learning: Education that takes place remotely, often through online courses and virtual classrooms.
• Blended Learning: A mix of traditional classroom teaching and online learning.

2. Educational Systems and Policies:

• Curriculum: The subjects comprising a course of study in a school or college.
• Syllabus: An outline or summary of the topics to be covered in an educational course.
• Standardized Testing: Tests administered and scored in a consistent, or "standard", manner.
• Grading System: A method of evaluating a student's performance, often using letters or grade points.
• Merit-Based Selection: Admission or rewards based on achievements and abilities.
• Equal Opportunity: The principle of giving all people the same chances and advantages regardless of their backgrounds.

3. Teaching Methods:

• Socratic Method: A form of cooperative argumentative dialogue to stimulate critical thinking.
• Interactive Learning: Learning through active engagement and participation.
• Experiential Learning: Learning through experience, often involving hands-on activities.
• Didactic Teaching: Teacher-centered instruction involving direct instruction and memorization.
• Peer Teaching: Learning from or with peers, often involving collaborative projects.
• Inclusive Education: Education that addresses the diverse needs of all students, including those with disabilities.

4. Academic Achievement:

• Scholastic Excellence: Outstanding academic performance.
• Cognitive Development: Growth in intellectual and mental abilities.
• Intellectual Rigor: The quality of being intellectually challenging or demanding.
• Critical Thinking: The objective analysis and evaluation of an issue to form a judgment.
• Analytical Skills: The ability to visualize, articulate, and solve both complex and uncomplicated problems.
• Research Proficiency: The ability to conduct thorough and effective research.

5. Challenges and Reforms:

• Educational Disparities: Inequalities in access to quality education.
• Resource Allocation: Distribution of resources, such as funding and teaching staff, in educational institutions.
• Educational Equity: The principle of fairness in education, ensuring everyone has access to necessary resources.
• Curriculum Reform: Changes made to the courses of study in schools and colleges.
• Digital Divide: The gap between those who have access to digital technology and those who do not.

6. General Education Terminology:

• Literacy: The ability to read and write.
• Numeracy: The ability to use and understand mathematical concepts and solve problems.
• Alumni: Graduates or former students of a specific school, college, or university.
• Pedagogical Approach: The method and practice of teaching, especially as an academic subject or theoretical concept.

II. Environment

1. Environmental Issues:

• Climate Change: Long-term change in the average weather patterns that have come to define Earth’s local, regional, and global climates.
• Global Warming: The long-term heating of Earth’s climate system, primarily caused by human activities.
• Deforestation: The action of clearing a wide area of trees.
• Biodiversity Loss: The decline in the variety of plant and animal species in a particular habitat.
• Pollution: The introduction of contaminants into the natural environment causing adverse change.
• Ozone Depletion: Reduction in the ozone layer in Earth's stratosphere caused by human-made chemicals containing chlorine and bromine.
• Ocean Acidification: The ongoing decrease in the pH of Earth's oceans, caused by the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
• Endangered species: a species of animal or plant that is at risk of extinction
• Extinction: the disappearance of a species of animal or plant from the Earth
• Waste management: the collection, transportation, and disposal of waste

2. Renewable Energy:

• Solar Energy: Energy obtained from the sun's radiation.
• Wind Power: Energy harnessed from the wind using wind turbines.
• Hydropower: Electricity generated by the movement of water.
• Geothermal Energy: Heat energy from beneath the Earth's surface.
• Biomass Energy: Energy derived from organic materials.

3. Conservation and Preservation:

• Sustainable Development: Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
• Conservation: The act of preserving, guarding, or protecting the natural environment, wildlife, and natural resources.
• Preservation: The maintenance of resources in their present condition, with as little human impact as possible.
• Eco-friendly: Not harmful to the environment.
• Carbon Footprint: The total amount of greenhouse gases emitted into the atmosphere by human activities.

4. Environmental Policies and Agreements:

• Environmental Legislation: Laws and regulations designed to protect the environment.
• Paris Agreement: An international treaty to limit global warming and mitigate its effects.
• Kyoto Protocol: An international treaty committing states to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
• Sustainable Practices: Actions that maintain and conserve the environment for future generations.
• Emission Reduction: Decreasing the amount of harmful gases released into the atmosphere.
• Sustainability: the practice of using resources in a way that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

5. Environmental Conservation Organizations:

• Greenpeace: An international environmental organization focusing on issues such as climate change, deforestation, overfishing, and anti-nuclear issues.
• WWF (World Wildlife Fund): An international organization working to protect the world's most vulnerable species and ecosystems.
• Sierra Club: A prominent American environmental organization advocating for the protection and preservation of the environment.

6. Environmental Impact Assessment Terms:

• Mitigation: Measures taken to minimize or alleviate environmental impacts.
• Ecological Balance: The state of dynamic equilibrium within a community of organisms in an ecosystem.
• Habitat Destruction: The process by which natural habitat is rendered functionally unable to support the species present.
• Species Extinction: The disappearance of a species from Earth.
• Ecosystem Services: The benefits people obtain from ecosystems, such as clean air, fresh water, and pollination of crops.

7. Other useful vocabulary:

• Biodiversity: the variety of life on Earth
• Carbon footprint: the total amount of greenhouse gases emitted by a person, organization, or product
• Climate justice: the fair and equitable treatment of all people in the context of climate change
• Environmental impact: the effect that human activity has on the environment
• Environmental policy: government laws and regulations that aim to protect the environment
• Sustainable development: development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

III. Society

1. Social Structures:

• Socioeconomic Status: An individual's or family's social and economic position in relation to others.
• Social Stratification: The hierarchical arrangement of individuals or groups in society.
• Caste System: A rigid social hierarchy based on hereditary class distinctions.
• Marginalized: Excluded, ignored, or relegated to a lower social standing.
• Social Cohesion: The degree of unity and solidarity within a society.
• Nuclear Family: A family unit consisting of parents and their children.
• Extended Family: A family unit that extends beyond the nuclear family, often including grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins.

2. Social Issues and Inequalities:

• Income Disparity: The gap in earnings between the rich and the poor.
• Gender Disparity: Differences in opportunities, status, and treatment based on gender.
• Racial Discrimination: Unfair treatment or prejudice against people of a particular race.
• Ageism: Prejudice or discrimination based on a person's age.
• Social Exclusion: The process of marginalizing individuals or groups from participating fully in society.
• Systemic Inequality: Inequalities that are ingrained in social, economic, and political systems.
• Social mobility: The ability of people to move up or down in social class

3. Social Movements and Activism:

• Civil Rights Movement: Movements advocating for the rights and equality of all citizens, particularly focused on racial discrimination.
• Feminism: Advocacy for women's rights and equality based on the political, social, and economic equality of the sexes.
• Environmental Activism: Advocacy for the protection and preservation of the environment.
• Human Rights Activist: Individuals working to promote and protect fundamental rights and freedoms for all humans.
• Advocacy: Public support or recommendation of a particular cause or policy.

4. Social Phenomena:

• Urbanization: The process of population migration from rural to urban areas.
• Gentrification: The process of renovating and improving urban areas, often leading to the displacement of lower-income residents.
• Social Networking: The use of dedicated websites and applications to interact with other users or find people with similar interests.
• Digital Divide: The gap between those with and without access to modern information and communication technology.
• Social Capital: The networks of relationships among people who live and work in a particular society, enabling that society to function effectively.

5. Social Institutions:

• Education System: The structure and organization of formal education, including schools, colleges, and universities.
• Healthcare System: The organized network of medical care and health services provided to a population.
• Legal System: The framework of laws and institutions aimed at ensuring justice and regulating conduct within a society.
• Political System: The system of government and political activities within a society.
• Family Unit: A group of individuals related by blood, marriage, or adoption, living together and cooperating economically and socially.

6. Social Interactions:

• Civic Engagement: Active participation in community and societal activities.
• Social Norms: Shared expectations within a society regarding appropriate behaviors.
• Altruism: Selfless concern for the well-being of others.
• Reciprocity: The practice of exchanging things with others for mutual benefit.
• Social Etiquette: Accepted social behaviors and manners within a particular society or community.

7. Other useful vocabulary

• Cultural norms: The standards expected of behaviour or ideas in a particular culture
• Global citizenship: The recognition that we are all members of a global community and share a responsibility for the planet
• Social cohesion: The sense of unity and solidarity that exists within a society
• Social justice: The fair and equitable treatment of all people in a society
• Sustainable development: Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs
   

IV. Health

1. Health Conditions:

• Chronic: Persisting for a long time or constantly recurring, often used to describe diseases.
• Terminal: Incurable or ultimately leading to death, often used in the context of illnesses.
• Degenerative: Characterized by the progressive deterioration of bodily functions and structures.
• Endemic: Prevalent in a particular area or among a particular group of people.
• Epidemic: A widespread occurrence of a disease in a community at a particular time.
• Pandemic: Affecting a large geographical area, often used for diseases that spread globally.
• Asthma: A chronic lung disease that causes inflammation and narrowing of the airways
• Cancer: A disease in which cells grow uncontrollably and can invade other tissues
• Cardiovascular disease: A group of diseases that affect the heart and blood vessels
• Diabetes: A chronic disease in which the body does not produce enough insulin or cannot use insulin effectively
• Depression: A mental health condition that causes persistent feelings of sadness and loss of interest
• Obesity: A condition in which a person has excessive body fat

2. Medical Treatments:

• Holistic: Considering a person as a whole, including their physical, mental, and social aspects in treatment.
• Palliative Care: Medical care focused on providing relief from the symptoms and stress of a serious illness.
• Rehabilitation: Process of helping an individual achieve the highest level of function, independence, and quality of life possible after an illness or injury.
• Intervention: Medical procedure or action to improve a person's health.
• Placebo: A substance with no therapeutic effect, often used in medical trials for comparison.
• Therapy: Treatment intended to relieve or heal a disorder.

3. Medical Professionals:

• Specialist: A doctor who focuses on a specific area of medicine or surgery.
• Consultant: A senior doctor in a hospital who provides expert advice and treatment in a particular field.
• General Practitioner (GP): A doctor who provides general medical treatment for people in a local community.
• Paramedic: A person trained to provide emergency medical care to people who are seriously ill or injured before they reach the hospital.
• Pharmacist: A person who is professionally qualified to prepare and dispense medicinal drugs.

4. Health Promotion:

• Wellness: The state of being in good health, especially as an actively pursued goal.
• Preventive Measures: Actions taken to prevent diseases or injuries.
• Health Consciousness: Awareness and concern for one's own health and well-being.
• Nutritional Balance: The right proportion of nutrients in one's diet to maintain good health.
• Physical Fitness: The state of being physically healthy and having the ability to perform aspects of sports or occupations.

5. Public Health Issues:

• Sanitation: Conditions relating to public health, especially the provision of clean water and adequate sewage disposal.
• Vector-Borne Disease: Diseases transmitted to humans or animals by insects or other arthropods.
• Vaccination: Treatment with a vaccine to produce immunity against a disease.
• Herd Immunity: Resistance to the spread of a contagious disease within a population that results if a sufficiently high proportion of individuals are immune to the disease.
• Healthcare Infrastructure: The network of hospitals, clinics, and other healthcare facilities in a region or country.

6. Lifestyle and Well-being:

• Sedentary Lifestyle: A way of life that involves little physical activity.
• Balanced Diet: A diet that contains the proper proportions of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, and minerals.
• Stress Management: Techniques and therapies to alleviate stress and promote relaxation.
• Mindfulness: The practice of being aware and present in the current moment.
• Resilience: The capacity to recover quickly from difficulties; toughness.

7. Other useful vocabulary

• Communicable disease: A disease that can be spread from one person to another
• Complementary and alternative medicine (CAM): A variety of healing practices that are not considered to be part of conventional medicine
• Diagnosis: The process of identifying a disease or condition
• Prognosis: The predicted outcome of a disease or condition

V. Technology

1. Technological Advancements:

• Innovative: Introducing new ideas; original and creative in thinking.
• Cutting-edge: At the forefront of technological development; extremely advanced.
• State-of-the-art: Using the latest and most advanced techniques or technology.
• Revolutionize: To completely change something, especially by introducing new methods or ideas.
• Breakthrough: A significant development or discovery, especially in technology.
• Pioneering: Involving new ideas or methods that have never been used before.

2. Digital Technology:

• Cybersecurity: Measures taken to protect computer systems and networks from theft, damage, or unauthorized access.
• Cloud Computing: Storing and accessing data and programs over the internet instead of a computer's hard drive.
• Artificial Intelligence (AI): Intelligence demonstrated by machines, in contrast to natural intelligence displayed by humans.
• Internet of Things (IoT): The interconnection via the internet of computing devices embedded in everyday objects, enabling them to send and receive data.
• Big Data: Extremely large data sets that may be analyzed computationally to reveal patterns, trends, and associations.
• Augmented Reality (AR): A technology that superimposes a computer-generated image on the user's view of the real world.

3. Digital Communication:

• Instant Messaging: Sending and receiving messages in real-time through digital platforms.
• Virtual Meetings: Meetings conducted online using video conferencing tools.
• Social Media Platforms: Websites and applications that enable users to create and share content or participate in social networking.
• Webinar: A seminar conducted over the internet.
• Digital Literacy: The ability to use digital technology, communication tools, or networks to locate, evaluate, use, and create information.

4. Impact on Society:

• Digital Divide: The gap between those who have access to modern information and communication technology and those who do not.
• Social Networking: The use of dedicated websites and applications to interact with other users or find people with similar interests.
• Disruptive Technology: A technology that significantly alters the way people or industries operate.
• Tech-savvy: Proficient or knowledgeable about modern technology, especially computers.
• Ethical Implications: The moral concerns arising from the impact of technology on society.

5. E-commerce and Online Business:

• Online Marketplace: A website or app that facilitates buying and selling of goods and services.
• Cryptocurrency: Digital or virtual currencies that use cryptography for security.
• Digital Wallet: An electronic device or online service that allows an individual to make electronic transactions.
• Payment Gateway: A service provider that processes online payments for e-commerce sites.

6. Future Technologies:

• Quantum Computing: The use of quantum-mechanical phenomena to perform computation.
• Biotechnology: The use of biological systems, organisms, or derivatives to develop or create new products.
• Nanotechnology: The manipulation of matter on an atomic, molecular, and supramolecular scale.
• Robotics: The interdisciplinary branch of engineering and science that includes mechanical engineering, electronics engineering, and computer science dealing with the design, construction, operation, and application of robots.

7. Artificial intelligence (AI)

• Chatbot: A computer program that simulates conversation with humans
• Deep learning: A type of machine learning that uses artificial neural networks to learn from data
• Machine learning: A type of AI that allows computers to learn without being explicitly programmed
• Natural language processing (NLP): A field of computer science that deals with the interaction between computers and human language

8. Computer hardware

• Central processing unit (CPU): The electronic circuitry that is responsible for carrying out the instructions of a computer program
• Hard disk drive (HDD): A storage device that uses magnetic disks to store data
• Random access memory (RAM): A temporary storage device that holds data that is currently being used by the CPU
• Solid state drive (SSD): A storage device that uses flash memory to store data

9. Computer software

• Application software: Software that is designed to perform a specific task, such as word processing or web browsing
• Operating system: Software that manages the hardware and software resources of a computer
• Programming language: A language that is used to write computer programs

10. Other technology terms

• Algorithm: a step-by-step procedure for solving a problem
• Bandwidth: the amount of data that can be transferred over a network connection
• Cloud computing: the delivery of computing services over the internet
• Data center: a facility that houses computer systems and associated components
• Internet of things (IoT): a network of physical objects that are connected to the internet and can collect and exchange data

VI. Work and Career

1. Career Advancement:

• Professional Development: Activities to enhance professional knowledge, skills, and abilities.
• Skill Set: The range of abilities, expertise, and qualifications a person possesses.
• Leadership Qualities: Attributes such as decisiveness, integrity, and strategic thinking.
• Strategic Planning: The process of defining an organization's strategy and making decisions on allocating resources to pursue this strategy.
• Executive Level: Senior management positions in a company or organization.
• Career Trajectory: The course of a person's career development over time.
• Mentorship: The guidance provided by a mentor, especially an experienced person in a company or educational institution.

2. Employment and Job Market:

• Employability: The ability to gain and maintain employment.
• Labor Market: The supply of available workers and the demand for workers in a particular field or industry.
• Job Security: The assurance that one's job is secure and not at risk of termination.
• Freelancing: Working as an independent contractor rather than being employed by a company.
• Telecommuting: Working from home, making use of the Internet and email to communicate with employers and colleagues.
• Outsourcing: Contracting work out to an external organization or individual.
• Job satisfaction: The feeling of being happy and fulfilled with one's work

3. Work Environment:

• Work-Life Balance: The balance between one's career and personal life activities.
• Corporate Culture: The shared values, attitudes, standards, and beliefs that characterize members of an organization.
• Diversity and Inclusion: Valuing and promoting differences among individuals in the workplace.
• Workplace Ethics: The moral principles and values that guide the behavior of individuals and organizations in the workplace.
• Employee Morale: The overall outlook, attitude, satisfaction, and confidence that employees feel at work.
• Occupational Health and Safety: Policies and procedures to ensure the health, safety, and welfare of people engaged in work or employment.

4. Job Application and Interview:

• Curriculum Vitae (CV): A detailed written account of one's education, work experience, qualifications, and achievements.
• Résumé: A brief document summarizing a person's education, work experience, skills, and achievements.
• Cover Letter: A letter sent with a job application explaining the applicant's qualifications and interest in the position.
• Job Interview: A formal meeting in which an applicant is assessed for a job position.
• Negotiation Skills: The ability to discuss and reach an agreement on terms, conditions, or options in a professional context.
• References: People who can vouch for an applicant's qualifications and character, often required during a job application process.

5. Professional Growth:

• Continuing Education: The ongoing, voluntary, and self-motivated pursuit of knowledge for personal and professional development.
• Career Advancement: Progression in one's career to higher levels of responsibility, pay, or influence.
• Upward Mobility: The ability to move up within an organization or to advance to a higher social or economic position.
• Skill Enhancement: Improving existing skills or developing new ones to perform tasks more efficiently.
• Certification: Official recognition of a person's knowledge or proficiency in a particular area, often obtained through exams or assessments.

6. Workplace Challenges:

• Conflict Resolution: Strategies for addressing and resolving disputes or disagreements between individuals or groups.
• Workplace Harassment: Unwelcome or offensive behavior directed at an individual or a group in the workplace.
• Burnout: A state of emotional, physical, and mental exhaustion caused by excessive and prolonged stress.
• Micromanagement: A management style where a manager closely observes and controls the work of subordinates.
• Job Dissatisfaction: Unhappiness or discontentment with one's job, often due to various factors such as work conditions, salary, or job responsibilities.

VII. Travel and Tourism

1. Types of Travel:

• Ecotourism: Responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well-being of local people.
• Adventure Tourism: Travel that involves exploration, physical activity, and interaction with nature.
• Cultural Tourism: Traveling to experience the arts, heritage, and culture of a destination.
• Voluntourism: Traveling to volunteer for a charitable cause while exploring new places.
• Sustainable Tourism: Tourism that aims to make a low impact on the environment and local culture.
• Heritage Tourism: Traveling to historical, cultural, or natural sites to learn about the heritage and traditions of a place.
• Ecotourism: Tourism that is focused on nature and the environment
• Off-the-beaten-path tourism: Tourism that involves visiting places that are not as popular with tourists

2. Travel Accommodations:

• Boutique Hotel: A small stylish hotel, typically located in a fashionable urban location.
• Luxury Resort: A high-end accommodation with premium amenities and services.
• Hostel: Budget-friendly lodging providing dormitory-style rooms and shared facilities.
• Bed and Breakfast (B&B): A small lodging establishment that offers overnight accommodation and breakfast.
• Vacation Rental: Private accommodation available for short-term rental, often furnished like a home.
• Glamping: Glamorous camping; a luxurious camping experience with amenities and comforts.

3. Travel Activities:

• Sightseeing: Visiting places of interest and attractions in a destination.
• Cultural Exchange: Interacting with local people and immersing oneself in the culture of the destination.
• Foodie Experience: Exploring local cuisine and culinary traditions.
• Outdoor Adventure: Engaging in activities such as hiking, kayaking, or zip-lining.
• Historical Exploration: Exploring historical sites, museums, and landmarks.
• Off-the-Beaten-Path: Visiting less touristy and more authentic locations.

4. Travel Logistics:

• Travel Itinerary: A detailed plan outlining the route and activities for a trip.
• Travel Insurance: Coverage that protects against financial loss during travel, including medical emergencies and trip cancellations.
• Visa Requirements: Official authorization permitting entry to a country.
• Jet Lag: Fatigue and disorientation caused by long flights across multiple time zones.
• Customs Regulations: Rules and restrictions regarding the import and export of goods in a country.
• Travel Advisory: Official advice provided by governments about the safety and security of traveling to specific destinations.

5. Travel Experiences:

• Exhilarating: Making one feel very happy, animated, or elated.
• Enriching: Adding greater meaning, value, or significance to an experience.
• Memorable: Worthy of being remembered or easily remembered, especially because of being special or unusual.
• Breathtaking: Extremely exciting, beautiful, or surprising.
• Authentic: Real, genuine, and true to its origins or traditions.
• Transformative: Causing a significant change in someone's life or outlook.

6. Travel Challenges:

• Culture Shock: The feeling of disorientation experienced when suddenly subjected to an unfamiliar culture, way of life, or set of attitudes.
• Language Barrier: The difficulty faced when communication is hindered due to differences in language.
• Tourist Overcrowding: Excessive numbers of tourists in a destination leading to environmental degradation and reduced enjoyment.
• Tourist Traps: Places that attract tourists with overpriced goods or services of low quality.
• Travel Fatigue: The weariness experienced after extended periods of travel.

VIII. Arts and Media

1. Visual Arts:

• Masterpiece: An outstanding work of art or craft.
• Iconic: Widely recognized and well-established, often representing a particular style or era.
• Avant-Garde: Innovative and experimental works, especially in the arts.
• Aesthetic: Concerned with beauty or the appreciation of beauty.
• Ephemeral: Lasting for a very short time; transient.
• Sculpture: Three-dimensional artwork created by shaping or combining materials.
• Palette: A range of colors or qualities used in a particular situation or by a specific artist.
• Abstract: Art that does not attempt to represent external reality, but seeks to achieve its effect using shapes, forms, colors, and textures.
• Impressionistic: Artistic style that emphasizes the artist's impression of a scene or object.
• Still Life: A painting or drawing of inanimate objects such as flowers, fruit, or everyday items.

2. Performing Arts:

• Eloquent: Fluent or persuasive in speaking or writing.
• Choreography: The art or practice of designing dance sequences.
• Improvisation: Creating and performing spontaneously without preparation.
• Pantomime: A form of entertainment using gestures, expressions, and movements without speech.
• Overture: An orchestral piece played at the beginning of an opera or ballet.
• Crescendo: A gradual increase in loudness or intensity, often in music.
• Harmony: The combination of simultaneously sounded musical notes to produce chords with a pleasing effect.
• Libretto: The text or script of an opera, oratorio, or musical.
• Ensemble: A group of musicians, actors, or dancers who perform together.
• Repertoire: The range of works that a performer, company, or genre is prepared to perform.

3. Media and Communication:

• Media Literacy: The ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and create media in various forms.
• Propaganda: Information, especially biased or misleading in nature, used to promote a political cause or point of view.
• Satire: The use of humor, irony, exaggeration, or ridicule to criticize or mock people or society.
• Censorship: The suppression or prohibition of any parts of books, films, news, etc., that are considered obscene, politically unacceptable, or a threat to security.
• Digital Natives: People born or brought up during the age of digital technology.
• Clickbait: Online content designed to attract attention and encourage visitors to click on a link.
• Media Ethics: The moral principles that govern the behavior of journalists and media organizations.
• Infotainment: Broadcast material that is intended both to entertain and to inform.
• Media Bias: The perceived bias of journalists and news producers within the mass media in the selection of events and stories that are reported and how they are covered.
• Podcast: A digital audio or video file series that can be streamed or downloaded online.

4. Film and Television:

• Cinematography: The art and technique of film photography and camera work.
• Directorial Vision: The artistic perspective and style of a film director.
• Soundtrack: The music used in a film or television show.
• Storyboard: A sequence of drawings representing the shots planned for a film or television production.
• CGI (Computer-Generated Imagery): The application of computer graphics to create or contribute to images in art, printed media, video games, films, television programs, shorts, commercials, videos, and simulators.
• Dystopian: Relating to or denoting an imagined state or society where there is great suffering or injustice.
• Documentary: A factual film or television program presenting the facts about a person or event.
• Screenplay: The script for a film or television show, including dialogue and descriptions of characters and scenes.
• Blockbuster: A highly successful and popular film, television show, or other work of entertainment.
• Screen Time: The amount of time a person spends watching television or using other electronic devices with screens.

5. Other useful vocabulary

• Censorship: The suppression of information or communication that is considered to be objectionable
• Copyright: The exclusive right to reproduce, publish, and sell a copyrighted work
• Creative industries: The industries that produce and distribute creative goods and services
• Freedom of expression: The right to express one's opinions and ideas without interference from the government
• Intellectual property: The creations of the mind, such as inventions, literary and artistic works, and symbols, names and images used in commerce
• Plagiarism: The act of taking someone else's work and passing it off as your own

IX. Crime and Law

1. Types of Crime:

• Felony: A serious crime, typically punishable by imprisonment for more than a year.
• Misdemeanor: A less serious offense, usually punishable by fines or imprisonment for less than a year.
• Criminal Offense: An act that violates the law and is punishable by the state.
• Capital Crime: A crime, such as murder, that is punishable by death.
• White-Collar Crime: Non-violent crimes committed by individuals or corporations, often in business or professional settings.
• Cybercrime: Criminal activities carried out by means of computers or the internet.
• Human Trafficking: The illegal trade of humans, often for forced labor or commercial sexual exploitation.
• Identity Theft: The fraudulent acquisition and use of another person's personal information, such as credit card numbers or Social Security numbers.
• Organized Crime: Criminal activities conducted by organized groups, often involving illegal drugs, extortion, or violence.
• Hate Crime: A crime motivated by prejudice or hostility against a person's race, religion, ethnicity, sexual orientation, or gender identity.
• Assault: to attack someone physically
• Battery: to cause someone physical harm
• Burglary: to enter a building illegally with the intention to commit a crime
• Cybercrime: a crime committed using a computer or the internet
• Domestic violence: abuse that occurs within a family or household
• Drug trafficking: the illegal sale and distribution of drugs
• Fraud: to deceive someone in order to gain money or property
• Homicide: the killing of another human being
• Kidnapping: the act of taking someone and keeping them prisoner
• Tarceny: the theft of personal property
• Turder: the unlawful killing of another human being with malice aforethought
• Tape: the unlawful sexual intercourse with a person without their consent
• Tobbery: the taking of property from another person by force or threat of force
• Terrorism: the unlawful use of violence and intimidation, especially against civilians, in the pursuit of political aims
• Theft: the act of stealing something
• Vandalism: the willful destruction of property

2. Legal Terminology:

• Due Process: The legal requirement that the state must respect all legal rights owed to a person.
• Presumption of Innocence: The principle that a person is considered innocent until proven guilty in a court of law.
• Alibi: A claim or piece of evidence that one was elsewhere when an act, typically a criminal one, is alleged to have taken place.
• Extradition: The process by which one country formally requests the surrender of a suspected or convicted criminal offender from another country.
• Statute of Limitations: The time within which legal proceedings must be initiated for a crime or civil offense.
• Bail: The temporary release of an accused person awaiting trial, often provided with a monetary guarantee.
• Probation: The release of an offender from detention, subject to a period of good behavior under supervision.
• Parole: The release of a prisoner temporarily or permanently before the completion of a sentence, on the promise of good behavior.
• Plea Bargain: An arrangement in which a defendant pleads guilty to a lesser charge to avoid a more severe penalty.
• Judicial Review: The power of a court to review and potentially invalidate laws or decisions that violate the Constitution.

3. Law Enforcement:

• Police Brutality: The excessive and often unnecessary use of force by law enforcement officers.
• Surveillance: The monitoring of behavior, activities, or information for the purpose of gathering intelligence, preventing crime, or maintaining social order.
• Forensic Evidence: Scientific evidence used in the investigation or prosecution of criminal offenses.
• Witness Protection: Measures taken to provide physical protection and new identities to witnesses who testify in criminal cases.
• Search Warrant: A legal document authorizing a police officer or other official to enter and search premises.

4. Criminal Justice System:

• Restorative Justice: An approach to justice that focuses on repairing the harm caused by criminal behavior, involving the victim, offender, and community.
• Rehabilitation: The process of helping a criminal reintegrate into society, often involving therapy, education, or job training.
• Recidivism: The tendency of a convicted criminal to reoffend, often measured by re-arrest, reconviction, or return to prison.
• Capital Punishment: The legally authorized killing of someone as punishment for a crime, often referred to as the death penalty.
• Incarceration: The state of being confined in prison; imprisonment.
• Clemency: Mercy or leniency, especially in the granting of a pardon or the lessening of a sentence.

X. Globalization

1. Economic Aspects:

• Globalization: The process by which businesses or other organizations develop international influence or start operating on an international scale.
• Trade Liberalization: The removal or reduction of restrictions or barriers on the free exchange of goods between nations.
• Economic Integration: The unification of economic policies between different countries through the partial or full abolition of tariff and non-tariff restrictions.
• Outsourcing: The practice of contracting work out to external companies, often in other countries, to reduce costs or improve efficiency.
• Multinational Corporation (MNC): A company that operates in multiple countries and has production or service facilities outside its home country.
• Global Supply Chain: The network of organizations involved in producing and delivering a product, from raw materials to the final consumer, across multiple countries.
• Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): Investment made by a company or individual in one country into business interests in another country.
• Trade Imbalance: A situation where a country imports more goods and services than it exports, leading to a trade deficit.
• Protectionism: The policy of protecting domestic industries from foreign competition by imposing tariffs, quotas, or other restrictions on imports.
• Economic Interdependence: The mutual reliance between two or more groups or countries for goods, services, or economic support.

2. Social and Cultural Aspects:

• Cultural Homogenization: The process by which cultures become more similar to one another.
• Cultural Hybridity: The mixing of different cultural elements to form new cultural identities.
• Cultural Imperialism: The practice of promoting the culture or language of one nation in another, often through media and popular culture.
• Cultural Relativism: The principle of understanding other cultures in the context of their own values and beliefs.
• Global Citizenship: The idea of being a citizen of the world and not just one country.
• Cultural Diversity: The existence of a variety of cultural or ethnic groups within a society.
• Cultural Assimilation: The process by which a minority group adopts the customs and behaviors of the dominant culture.
• Digital Divide: The gap between people with effective access to digital and information technology and those without it.
• Glocalization: The adaptation of global products or ideas to suit local preferences or customs.
• Cultural Hegemony: The domination of a culturally diverse society by the ruling class, who manipulate the culture of the society.

3. Political Aspects:

• Global Governance: The way international affairs are managed across countries, often involving international organizations and treaties.
• International Relations: The study of relationships between countries, including the roles of states, inter-governmental organizations, non-governmental organizations, and multinational corporations.
• Global Political Economy: The interaction between political and economic processes across countries.
• Supranational Organizations: International organizations that transcend national borders, such as the United Nations and the European Union.
• National Sovereignty: The authority of a state to govern itself and make decisions without interference from other states.
• International Cooperation: Countries working together to achieve common goals and address global challenges.
• Global Security: Efforts to maintain peace and protect nations from threats such as terrorism, cyber-attacks, and weapons proliferation.
• Climate Diplomacy: International efforts to address climate change through agreements, policies, and collaborations.
• Trade Bloc: A group of countries that work together to promote trade with one another, often through regional agreements like NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) or ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations).

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